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Conference Presentations and Invited Lectures
2025
[NL] De resultaten na 4 jaar Gam(e)(a)ble: De prevalentie en risico's van gamegokvermenging bij adolescenten in Vlaanderen
Presentation at VAd- Werkgroep gamen en gokken (Geudens M; De Cock R; Zaman B; Dupont B; Grosemans E; Bradt L; Denoo M) October 2025.
Gaming Disorder Prevention, Rethought: A Socio-Ecological Model Based on Practitioner Insights
Presentation at Digisoc conference 2025 (Geudens M; De Cock R; Zaman B; Dupont B) September 2025.
[NL] Jongeren en games: in-game aankopen, gokelementen en stiekeme verleiders
Presentation at Medianest Studiedag (Geudens M; De Cock R; Zaman B; Dupont B) May 2025.
Rethinking Gaming Disorder Prevention: A Socio-Ecological Model Based on Practitioner Insights
Presentation at SNSUS 2025 (Geudens M; De Cock R; Zaman B; Dupont B) May 2025.
The blurring lines between gaming and gambling among teenagers: A longitudinal study on the interplay between engagement in simulated gambling elements, problematic gaming, and online gambling
Presentation at Etmaal van de Communicatiewetenschappen 2025 (Bradt L) Februari 2025.
Gaming Disorder Prevention, Rethought: A Socio-Ecological Model Based on Practitioner Insights
Presentation at Etmaal van de Communicatiewetenschappen 2025 (Geudens M) Februari 2025.
Gaming to escape or to make new friends? Comparing the associations between gaming motives and problematic gaming crosssectionally and longitudinally
Presentation at Etmaal van de Communicatiewetenschappen 2025 (Grosemans E; De Cock R; Bradt L; Dupont B; Soenens B) Februari 2025.
Sports Betting Behaviour among Flemish Youth: A Dual Perspective of the Reasoned Action Approach and the hashtag#Self-Determination Theory.
Presentation at Etmaal van de Communicatiewetenschappen 2025 (Kasemi A) Februari 2025.
Sports Betting Behaviour among Flemish Youth: A Dual Perspective of the Reasoned Action Approach and the hashtag#Self-Determination Theory.
Presentation at Etmaal van de Communicatiewetenschappen 2025 (Kasemi A) Februari 2025.
"GOLD GOLD GOLD" Gambling-like elements on Twitch and Kick
Presentation at DiGRA 2025 (Grosemans E; Bosmans R; De Cock R; Denoo M; Zaman B) 2025.
The Gam(e) (a)ble Project
Presentation at Mechanism of Gaming 2025 (Grosemans E; Bradt L; Dupont B) 2025.
2024
Many faces, many names? Ethics in Belgian game development curricula
Presentation at Ethical Games Conference 2024 (Denoo M; Dupont B; Zaman B ) Januari 2024.
2023
PANEL: Navigating the Lines: Towards a Multi-Perspective Approach on Videogame Monetisation
Presentation at DiGRA2023 (Declerck P; Dupont B; Grosemans E; Petrovskaya E; Geudens M; Sas M; Dumont A) June2023.
Moving the margins: Setting up pathway research studying adolescent video gaming, simulated gambling and monetary engagement.
Presentation at DiGRA2023 (Declerck P; Dupont B; Grosemans E; Petrovskaya E; Geudens M; Sas M; Dumont A) June2023.
“Let’s unbox!”. Gambling-like elements on Twitch and simulated gambling among Flemish teenagers.
Presentation at DiGRA2023 (Grosemans E; Smits T; Zaman B; De Cock R) June2023.
“Let’s unbox!”. Gambling-like elements on Twitch and simulated gambling among Flemish teenagers.
Presentation at Self-Determination Theory Conference 2023 (Bradt L; Vansteenkiste M; Soenens B) May 2023.
2022
The legal walkthrough : a children’s rights perspective on FUT Packs in FIFA 22
Presentation at ECREA 2022 (Denoo M; Declerck P; Verdoodt V; Lievens E; Zaman B) October 2022.
Parental perspectives on the blurring lines between adolescent video gaming and simulated gambling: survey results
Presentation at ECREA 2022 (Grosemans E; Bradt L; Denoo M; Dupont B; Smits T; Malliet S; Soenens B; Zaman B; De Cock R) October 2022.
Antecedents and consequences of parents’ restrictive mediation and communication styles in the domain of gaming.
Presentation at European Association of Research on Adolescence Conference (Bradt L; Soenens B; De Cock R; Zaman B; Grosemans E; Denoo M) August 2022.
It all starts with a name: Mapping the terms used by researchers to describe gambling-like elements in digital games
Presentation at DiGRA 2022 (Dupont B; Grosemans E; Denoo M; Feci N; Declerck P; Bradt L; Van Heel M; Zaman B; De Cock R) July 2022.
Influencers in the audiovisual media landscape : research findings on regulating branded content
Presentation at Meeting of the WHO European Action Network on Reducing Marketing Pressure on Children.
June 2022.
[FR] Les défis de l’interdisciplinarité en game studies : Pistes de réponses inspirées du projet Gam(e)(a)ble et du protocole DiGAP
Presentation at Séminaire de recherche en communication et en journalisme 2022.
(Dupont B; Daneels R; Denoo M; Malliet S). 2022
Journal articles
2025
[NL] Gaming to escape or to make new friends? A longitudinal study into the effect of gaming motives on problematic gaming in adolescents
Paper published in Tijdschrift voor Communicatiewetenschap (Grosemans E; De Cock R; Bradt L; Dupont B), December 2025.
To ensure that adolescent video gaming behavior does not turn into problematic use, it is crucial to identify possible antecedents of this behavior. In this study, we map the role of gaming motivations in predicting problematic gaming behavior in adolescents, using a survey of 619 Flemish gaming adolescents (11-19 years old, 53% boys), administered at two measurement times. The results show that social motivations, escapism, competition, and fantasy can sustain problematic gaming behavior. Gaming for fun, to cope with stress, or to improve one’s skills were not significantly related to problematic gaming. Given the predictive nature of motives such as escapism and competition, interventions and support for problematic gaming behavior should not only focus on addressing the motives themselves, but also on the underlying (environmental) factors that give rise to these motives (for example: escapism as a result of problems at home or at school).
The article is accessible here.
From gambling-like elements in and around video games to monetary gambling: testing a pathway model among adolescents
Paper published in International Gambling Studies (Grosemans E; De Cock R; Bradt L; Soenens B), November 2025.
The lines between video games and gambling have been blurring, raising concerns for vulnerable players. The inclusion of gambling-like elements in games is considered a potential gateway to gambling with real money. Research has shown correlations between interacting with gambling-like elements and (problematic) gambling behavior. To date, no longitudinal research has examined this gateway hypothesis in adolescents. A two-wave survey (with a 1-year interval) was conducted among 561 Flemish (i.e. the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium) adolescents (ages 10–17 in the first wave, 43.3% boys). The prevalence of interacting with gambling-like elements in and around video games and gambling was 75.5% and 60.3%, with boys taking part significantly more often. Bivariate correlations showed significant, positive associations between interacting with gambling-like elements and gambling attitudes, norms, intentions, and behaviors. Cross-lagged panel analysis and structural equation modeling showed a longitudinal model from gambling-like elements to gambling. Interacting with gambling-like elements in the first wave was significantly predictive of gambling behavior at wave two, indirectly via gambling attitude and intention. The findings underscore the value of a reasoned action approach in predicting the effects of a variety of gambling-like elements -beyond loot boxes - on gambling.
The article is accessible here.
Similarities and Differences Between Parents’ and Adolescents’ Views on Playing Video Games: A Social Domain Theory Approach
Paper published in New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development (Bradt L; De Cock R; Vansteenkiste M; Vrijders B;
Soenens B), November 2025.
The topic of video gaming can spark disagreements and conflicts between parents and adolescents. Based on social domain theory, this study addresses the possibility that this is because parents and adolescents differ in terms of whether they perceive gaming as a moral, prudential, or personal issue. It is also examined whether parents’ social domain perceptions of gaming relate to their usage of restrictive mediation and different styles to communicate restrictive mediation.
Data were collected in October 2023 from 137 parent–adolescent dyads in Belgium. The adolescent participants (M = 15.90 years; 97% male) were frequent gamers. Adolescents and their parents provided ratings of the degree to which gaming belongs to three social domains (moral, prudential, and personal). In addition, parents filled out questionnaires on parental restrictive mediation and autonomy-supportive or controlling styles of communicating restrictive mediation. Analyses included repeated measures ANOVA and regression analyses.
Whereas parents viewed gaming more as a moral and prudential issue than adolescents, they both viewed gaming to an equal extent as a personal issue. Parents’ perceptions of gaming as a moral issue were associated with more restrictive mediation and a more controlling communication style, while their perception of gaming as a personal issue was positively linked with autonomy-supportive communication.
The more parents see gaming as a moral issue, the more they set rules on gaming and communicate about rules in a controlling way. Parents who see games more as a personal issue are more likely to communicate about games in an autonomy-supportive way.
The article is accessible here.
Playing Sports, Placing Sports Bets? Sports Club Membership, Gambling Norms and Sports Gambling Behavior among Flemish Youth
Paper published in the Journal of Gambling Studies (Kasemi A; Grosemans E; Amanda R; Zaman B; De Cock R), September 2025.
In recent years, gambling has become increasingly embedded in sports culture, a phenomenon known as “gamblification”, raising concerns about youth exposure to sports betting. This study explores the role of descriptive norms (perceived peer gambling behavior) and injunctive norms (perceived peer approval) within Flemish sports clubs, assessing their impact on youths’ (18–25 year old) online sports betting frequency. Using a quantitative cross-sectional survey (N = 1,290), results indicated that sports club membership is significantly positively correlated with online sports betting frequency, a relation mediated specifically by descriptive norms. However, injunctive norms did not mediate this relationship. The results of this study suggest a need for targeted prevention strategies within sports clubs.
The article is accessible here.
Psychometric Validation of the Gaming Disorder Scale for Adolescents (GADIS-A) in Dutch Among Flemish Adolescents
Paper published in Psychologica Belgica (Grosemans E; De Cock R; Bradt L; Boonen H; Soenens B.), July 2025.
The Gaming Disorder Scale for Adolescents (GADIS-A, Paschke, Austermann & Thomasius, 2020) was the first screening tool for gaming disorder based on the new ICD-11 criteria. In order to increase the international applicability of the GADIS-A, the current study aimed to validate the psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the instrument. It was validated in a survey among 1773 Flemish (= Dutch-speaking part of Belgium) video game playing adolescents. EFA and CFA were performed to check the factor structure. The Video Game Addiction Test (VAT), gaming time, passion for gaming, Gaming Disorder Scale for Parents (GADIS-P), sensation seeking, impulsivity, adolescents’ school and social life, and simulated and monetary gambling were employed to derive construct validity, and life satisfaction, depression, and anxiety to check criterion validity. Analyses suggested a two-factor structure in the Dutch GADIS-A, similar to the original study: the first factor relates to negative consequences, while the second factor reveals cognitive-behavioral symptoms. Both subscales and the total scale showed acceptable-to-good internal consistency (α = 0.78-0.85). Significant correlations were established between GADIS-A and all other variables (except for sensation seeking), congruent with previous research. The Dutch version of the GADIS-A proved to be a reliable and valid tool for assessing gaming disorder in adolescents. It was also linked, for the first time, to the increasingly blurring lines between video gaming and monetary gambling.
The article is accessible here.
In case players were wondering: A topic modelling and sentiment analysis study of community discussions on weapon cases in the CS:GO game
Paper published in Entertainment Computing (Chen Z; Zaman B.), June 2025.
Previous studies on randomized mechanics in video games have primarily focused on their links to gambling behaviors. However, gaps exist in understanding how players discuss and perceive these mechanics, such as loot boxes. Addressing these gaps, we analyzed discourses from 2023 in two popular Reddit communities for Counter-Strike: Global Offensive (CS:GO), using Correlated Topic Model and Sentiment Analysis. Four main topics were identified: Monetary Elements, Gaming-Gambling, Gameplay Issues, and Affective Appreciation. The findings reveal a generally positive sentiment, with high levels of trust and anticipation, but also ambivalence towards the monetary aspects of loot boxes. Discussions on rewards and virtual items were distinct from those on gameplay and gambling. These nuanced discourses and sentiments, along with their interplay, shape community norms and influence players’ perceived responsibilities of game developers. We advocate for more player-focused inspection in research and policymaking.
The article is accessible here.
Fair play or foul play? A children’s rights analysis of lootboxes in videogames
Paper published in The International Journal of Children's Rights (Declerck, P.), March 2025.
Children are increasingly engaging with a videogame environment where lootboxes – and more broadly speaking random reward mechanisms – are integrated into videogame design as a means to obtain various in-game rewards. Taking into account the developing body of academic research establishing correlations between lootbox engagement and gambling-related risks, as well as research on behavioural design techniques used to optimise player engagement, this article aims to analyse the regulation of lootboxes from a children’s rights perspective. Focusing on the child’s right to play and right to be protected against economic exploitation, the article explores how lootboxes are integrated into contemporary videogames and subsequently how the related design choices may impact the rights of the child. Especially considering the recent regulatory attention directed at lootboxes, this article aims to provide insights into how policymakers around the world can use the children’s rights framework to interpret and give shape to the (future) regulation of lootboxes.
The article is accessible here.
Developer dialogues: a study of game creators to understand the potential for industry self-regulation of monetization
Paper published in Information, Communication, and Society (Denoo, M., Petrovskaya, E.), February 2025.
Current scientific discourse on game monetization reflects strong ethical perspectives on the role of money in game production. The present study seeks to uncover the foundational principles and practices that shape how games are monetized. By interviewing 17 game creators directly involved in monetization, we uncover six principles and practices that might mitigate potential harms to player wellbeing associated with monetization. This research aims to inform ongoing efforts advocating for industry self-regulation concerning loot boxes and similar game elements.
The article is accessible here.
2024
A Special Offer for You!”–Personalisation of In-Game Commercial Practices at the Crossroads of Data Protection and Consumer Protection Regulation
Paper published in [European Journal of Consumer Law] (Declerck, P., Lievens, E., Verdoodt, V.), 2024.
The videogame industry has exponentially grown in recent years, both in terms of generated revenue and numbers of players around the world. Data-driven videogame business models increasingly rely on both micro-transactions and the monetisation of personal data provided by players. These evolutions have led to personalisation of commercial practices within videogames based on player data. Such personalisation practices may be used to encourage players to spend more time and money on videogames by targeting them with in-game personalised advertising, offers for purchases and prices. Personalisation for commercial purposes raises important questions about the rights of players, who assume dual roles as consumers and data subjects. This article aims to investigate the limits of lawfulness for personalisation of commercial practices from a dual perspective, delving into common concepts of consumer and data protection law – fairness, transparency and vulnerability – with a specific focus on young players. It explores in particular how rules laid down in the General Data Protection Regulation and the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive apply and interact to ensure player protection.
The article is accessible here.
[FR] Littératie et capital vidéoludique : approche systématique et textométrique d’un domaine hétéroclite
Paper published in Revue de recherches en littératie médiatique multimodale (Houlmont P-Y; Dupont B; Hansen D), December 2024.
This article offers an overview of how the concept “gaming capital” has been mobilized in the anglophone literature, through a series of textometric analyses. Although it quickly appears that this notion shares many similarities with the concept of “literacy”, both of these notions also have many diverging points which merit further scientific consideration. In this contribution, we therefore collect in a systematic way studies referring to gaming capital and to the work of Mia Consalvo, which offered the f irst operating definition of gaming capital. Through keywords and correspondence analyses, we then identify five key thematic ensembles, namely 1) capital parameters, 2) learning and understanding, 3) community studies, 4) identity and empowerment, and 5) instruments and signs of capital. In doing so, this study highlights the evolution of the concept of literacy, which has surp assed educational issues. By identifying these five ensembles, it also shows its proximity with the notion of gaming capital and thus potential areas of interest for game literacy, where further research could benefit critical media education, or the research field as a whole.
The article is accessible here.
Postdigital Videogames Literacies: Thinking With, Through, and Beyond James Gee’s Learning Principles
Paper published in Postdigital Science and Education (Bacalja A; Nichols TP; Robinson B; Bhatt I; · Kucharczyk S; Zomer C; Nash B; Dupont B; De Cock R; Zaman B; Bonenfant M; Grosemans E; Schamroth Abrams S; Vallis C; Koutsogiannis D; Dishon G; Reed J; Byers T; Fawzy RM; Hsiao‑Ping H; Lowien N; Barton G; Callow J; Liu Z; Serafni F; Vermeire Z; deHaan J; Croasdale A; Torres‑Toukoumidis A; Xu X; Schnaider K) October 2024.
This article is a collective response to the 2003 iteration of James Paul Gee’s What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. Gee’s book, a foundational text for those working in game studies, literacy studies, and education, identified 36 principles of ‘good learning’ which he argued were built into the design of good games, and which have since been used to unsettle the landscape of formal education. This article brings together 21 short theoretical and empirical contributions which centre postdigital perspectives to re-engage with, and extend, the arguments first raised by Gee regarding the relationship between videogames and learning. Organised into five groups, these contributions suggest that concepts and attitudes associated with the postdigital offer new thinking tools for challenging grand narrative claims about the educative potential of technologies while also providing rich analytical frames for revisiting Gee’s claims in terms of postdigital videogame literacies.
The article is accessible here.
Making Complexity Measurable in Practice: A Formal Analysis of Gamble-Play media
Paper published in Games and Culture (Denoo M; Dupont B; Zaman B; Grosemans E; Malliet S) September 2024.
Over the past decade, videogames have become increasingly gambling-like in their design. Scientific and regulatory attempts to unravel such design seem particularly oriented towards the effects and regulatory treatment of paid-for loot boxes, favoring either measurability or complexity. Departing from gamble-play theory, this paper, therefore, attempts to make complexity measurable in practice. We conduct a formal analysis of 20 videogames that include loot boxes, social casino games, optional gambling-themed activities and token wagering by identifying and mapping interactions between their features. Having uncovered 51 features across 11 categories, we then reinterpret previously established notions of gambling. In doing so, we aim to contribute to a future-proof understanding of gambling in videogames.
The article is accessible here.
Are Video Games and School Conflictual or Complementary Contexts for Affording Psychological Need Fulfillment? Implications for Adolescents’ Problematic Gaming and School Adjustment
Paper published in Interacting with Computers (Bradt L; Vermote B; Zaman B; Vansteenkiste M; Van de Casteele M; Soenens B), June/September 2024.
According to the need density hypothesis, adolescents are at risk for problematic gaming when they only experience satisfaction of their basic psychological needs within, but not outside, the gaming context. This cross-sectional study among daily gamers (N = 309, M age = 15.63, 94.8% boys) is the first to examine this hypothesis in adolescence, thereby comparing adolescents’ need fulfillment between the contexts of video games and school and examining the role of need fulfilment in both contexts in relation to problematic gaming and school outcomes. Response surface analysis showed that adolescents’ overall need satisfaction (across the two contexts) was related to lower problematic gaming and less maladaptive school outcomes. Consistent with the need density hypothesis, adolescents reported more problematic gaming, school disengagement and school burnout when high need satisfaction in the gaming context co-occurred with either low need satisfaction or high need frustration at school. Directions for future research are discussed.
The article is accessible here.
It all starts with a name: Mapping the terms used by researchers to describe gambling-like elements in video games
Paper published in Journal of Gambling Issues (Dupont B; Grosemans E; Denoo M; Bradt L; Feci N; Declerck P; Van Heel M; Zaman B; De Cock R), June 2024.
As the demarcating lines between video gaming and gambling are increasingly blurred due to the embedding of so called “gambling-like” elements as loot boxes and prize wheels in video games, scholarly attention for this phenomenon is on the rise. Yet this strong attention comes with a downside: terminological dispersion. Indeed, the number of terms used to describe the emerging video game features that resemble gambling rapidly grows, and frameworks for naming diversify. This hinders a clear conceptualisation and solid scientific research findings, hampering the drafting of societally relevant recommendations for self-regulation of the industry and policy-making. Our study therefore maps the terminology used by experts from different disciplines studying the convergence between video gaming and gambling in the videogame ecology. It does so through a) an in-depth literature review searching for labels and b) a survey conducted among researchers to gauge for their used and preferred terms to describe the phenomena under study. Our findings point towards an effective circulation of the terms among academic experts, but without inter-expert consensus on their use, nor intra-expert terminological consistency. Some trends are identifiable: the use of terms placing phenomena on a continuum between gaming and gambling; the salient use of the term loot box, albeit not in a catch-all sense, and the attention for the presence of real money transactions. The terminological choices of experts seem to be oriented by distinguishable features: the visual outlook of the games, visual and textual references to gambling, the presence of opaque reward containers, and the visibility of in-game currencies and marketplaces. Finally, we sketch some recommendations for a terminology suited to interdisciplinary research and communication with non-academic stakeholders: treating the concept of simulation with caution, using loot box in its restrictive sense, being aware of the false feeling of understanding related to the gaminggambling continuum, recurring to paraphrases to discuss the involvement of realworld currencies, and favouring explicitness.
The article is accessible here.
Many faces, many names? Ethics in Belgian game development education
Paper published in ACM Games: Research and Practice (Denoo M; Dupont B; Zaman B), August 2024.
What is nowadays taught to the game creators of tomorrow in terms of ethics? The current study addresses this question by focusing on 11 higher education and continuous vocational training programs for aspiring game developers taught in Belgium. We conducted textual analyses of institutional materials and semi-structured interviews with nine educators. By combining these sources of data, this study identifies three key categories of ethical considerations that are taught to students: content and design impact, workplace standards, and diversity in gaming culture. This study also underscores educators’ proactivity in addressing gaps between curricular content, industry expectations, and student concerns. It is our hope that this study elucidates the critical potential of teaching ethics, providing actionable recommendations for educational institutions to help prepare creators navigate complex moral issues in today's gaming landscape.
The article is accessible here.
Loot boxes as part of a layered platform ecosystem: A multidisciplinary perspective
Paper published in Convergence (Denoo, M., Declerck, P., Verdoodt, V., & Zaman, B.), June 2024.
By considering diverse disciplinary perspectives on the psychological impact, design and regulation of loot boxes, this paper departs from a shared need for a holistic comprehension of the platform ecosystem in which contemporary videogames are played, developed and governed. The rationale of this paper is grounded in the rapid evolution of monetisation in videogames, which has not only generated scientific interest towards digital consumption, but also engendered concerns for player health, particularly in the realm of gambling-like loot boxes. We perform an empirical Walkthrough of FIFA22’s Ultimate Team (FUT) mode to identify four layers in FUT’s platform ecosystem, which constitute different scenarios of use and which, taken together, raise issues of uncertainty and persuasion for players. Although we focus on FIFA22, our study extends to other videogames with microtransactions, revealing implications for media, design and legal frameworks. Our findings underscore the value of a qualitative, interpretative approach to analysing videogame consumption at the intersection of various platforms and business models.
The article is accessible here.
Are Video Games and School Conflictual or Complementary Contexts for Affording Psychological Need Fulfillment? Implications for Adolescents' Problematic Gaming and School Adjustment
Paper published in Interacting with Computers (Bradt L; Vermote B; Zaman B; Vansteenkiste M; Van de Casteele M; Soenens B), June 2024.
According to the need density hypothesis, adolescents are at risk for problematic gaming when they only experience satisfaction of their basic psychological needs within, but not outside, the gaming context. This cross-sectional study among daily gamers (N = 309, M age = 15.63, 94.8% boys) is the first to examine this hypothesis in adolescence, thereby comparing adolescents’ need fulfillment between the contexts of video games and school and examining the role of need fulfilment in both contexts in relation to problematic gaming and school outcomes. Response surface analysis showed that adolescents’ overall need satisfaction (across the two contexts) was related to lower problematic gaming and less maladaptive school outcomes. Consistent with the need density hypothesis, adolescents reported more problematic gaming, school disengagement and school burnout when high need satisfaction in the gaming context co-occurred with either low need satisfaction or high need frustration at school. Directions for future research are discussed.
The article is accessible here.
More than loot boxes: the role of video game streams and gambling-like elements in the gaming-gambling connection among adolescents
Paper published in Journal of Gambling Issues (Grosemans, E. , De Cock, R., Bradt, L., Zaman, B.), March 2024.
The intertwining of video games and gambling, known as simulated gambling, has prompted concerns about the potential influence of simulated gambling as a stepping stone towards monetary gambling. Previous studies tend to focus overwhelmingly on loot boxes, which are video game packages where the randomized content is hidden until opening them. The current study broadens this horizon by mapping the relationships between various gambling-like elements within the video gaming ecosystem, and monetary gambling. Applying the Theory of Reasoned Action, the study considered attitude, perceived normative pressure, and intention alongside monetary gambling behavior. In winter 2021 and early 2022, 1472 Flemish adolescents (mean age = 14.02, 47.5% female) took part in a survey on simulated and monetary gambling. Respondents had participated in simulated (75.3%) and monetary gambling (60.4%) in the past year. Bivariate correlations revealed that gambling-like activities were positively correlated (p < .001) with monetary gambling. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that watching gambling streams, spinning prize wheels, and spending money in social casino games predict monetary gambling (p < .001). Adding loot boxes and other gambling-like elements explained extra variance on top of gender and age (p < .001). Structural equation modelling suggested a pathway model from simulated gambling to monetary gambling attitude, normative pressure, intention, and behavior. This study underscores the importance of considering diverse gambling-like elements in research on the relationship between simulated and monetary gambling, next to the applicability of the Theory of Reasoned Action.
The article is accessible here.
2023
Does parents' perceived style of setting limits to gaming matter? The interplay between profiles of parental mediation and BIS/BAS sensitivity in problematic gaming and online gambling
Paper published in Journal of Adolescence (Bradt, L; Grosemans, E; De Cock, R; Dupont, B; Vansteenkiste, Maarten; Soenens, Bart), November 2023.
Parents try to prevent possible negative outcomes associated with gaming by setting rules on their adolescent's gaming behavior (i.e., restrictive mediation). Parents can use either more autonomy-supportive or more controlling styles to communicate those rules. Using a person-centered approach, this study aims to, first, identify profiles of parents' perceived degree of restrictive mediation in gaming and styles of communicating these rules (i.e., autonomy-supportive and controlling); second, to examine how adolescents in different profiles differ in terms of maladaptive gaming outcomes (i.e., problematic gaming, simulated, and online gambling); third, to investigate the moderating role of gaming frequency and adolescents' personality (i.e., behavioral inhibition system [BIS] sensitivity and behavioral activation system [BAS] sensitivity) in the associations between the parental profiles and the outcomes.
The study used quantitative, cross-sectional survey data from Belgian adolescents (N = 1651, mean age = 14.00 years, 51.2% boys), collected between November 2021 and February 2022 in schools.
Cluster analysis yielded four profiles of perceived restrictive mediation: an exclusively controlling one, an autonomy-supportive one, one where parents used a perceived mix of both communication styles, and one where there was an overall perceived lack of restrictive mediation. Adolescents in the controlling profile displayed the most maladaptive outcomes. Some of the associations between the parental profiles and the outcomes were stronger for more frequent gamers and for adolescents scoring higher on both BIS and BAS sensitivity.
Associations between the parental profiles and gaming outcomes were theoretically meaningful, yet small in terms of effect size.
The article is accessible here.
Counterplay: Circumventing the Belgian Ban on Loot Boxes by Adolescents
Paper published in Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction (Denoo M; Dupont B; Grosemans E; Zaman B; De Cock R) October 2023.
In 2018, Belgium made the world news for being the first country to ban loot boxes in games for all its inhabitants. As players’ freedom to purchase loot boxes was restricted, however, methods of circumventing the ban came into practice. Departing from counterplay theory, we drew from an online survey among Belgian adolescents aged 11 18 with two questions in mind: what counterplay practices are used to circumvent the Belgian ban on loot boxes, and how do counterplayers (N = 124) compare to non counterplayers (N = 329) in terms of their engagement with loot boxes and games more broadly? Our findings suggest that counterplayers resist current regulatory arrangements in a myriad of ways, delineating the boundaries of a national ban in a global game ecology. Counterplayers appeared to differentiate themselves from non counterplayers both in terms of depth characteristics (sense of belonging to an online community, perceived gaming ability, gaming disorder, and risky loot box use) and breadth characteristics (frequency of skin betting, selling loot box rewards, and (re)watching loot box opening livestreams). Ultimately, our study may tease out debate on how to regulate games successfully in the face of players’ technical abilities and motivation to gain access.
The article is accessible here.
Informing Children about Privacy: A Review and Assessment of Age-Appropriate Information Designs in Kids-Oriented F2P Video Games
Paper published in Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction (Sas M; Denoo M; Mühlberg JT) October 2023.
With the rise of free-to-play games, the profitability of video-gaming apps critically depends on the ability of developers to acquire, retain, and monetize large numbers of players. In this context, most game designers have no viable alternative than massively collecting players’ personal data and monitoring their behavior to target them with personalized advertising and in-game purchases. Given the risks associated with such data practices, players, in particular children, need to be aware that a video game might compromise their privacy. Game designers should therefore ensure that players receive appropriate information about the data practices associated with their games. This might, however, be challenging, especially when the game is directed at children, given the complexity of privacy information and the limited literacy capacities of children and their parents. To answer game designers’ need for comprehensive guidance regarding the communication of privacy information to children, we provide a survey of the age-appropriate information design strategies which been recommended by data protection authorities, children protection organizations and the relevant scientific literature. On this occasion, we also refer to illustrative examples of designs which can be considered good practices. Finally, by using an “evaluation matrix”, we reviewed and assessed the implementation of those design strategies in nine F2P mobile games committed to following Google Play’s Families Policies. Our findings show that, despite being child-oriented, the reviewed games largely fail at communicating privacy information in an age-appropriate way.
The article is accessible here.
2022
The Digital Game Analysis Protocol (DiGAP): Introducing a Guide for Reflexive and Transparent Game Analyses
Paper published in Game Studies (Daneels R; Denoo M; Vandewalle A; Dupont B; Malliet S) April 2022
The analysis of digital games is a widely used method in the field of game studies and an important instrument to study games and game-related topics. However, existing methodological work showcases a divergency of perspectives on game analyses, hindering the development of clear guidelines on how to actually conduct them. This lack of methodological consensus is fueled further by several complexities when analyzing games, such as the active participation that is required on the part of the researchers. Therefore, the current paper proposes the Digital Game Analysis Protocol (DiGAP), a methodological toolkit that, compared to existing methodological frameworks, provides researchers with sufficient flexibility and adaptability in order to cater to a game analysis’ specific focus and needs. DiGAP’s goal is twofold: to make researchers reflect on the potential impact of their methodological choices on the analysis and interpretation of game content, and to promote the transparent reporting of game analyses in academic manuscripts. Based on previous methodological scholarship, the authors’ prior game analysis experience and brainstorm meetings between members of our interdisciplinary author team, DiGAP consists of 31 items categorized in seven sections: (1) Rationale & objectives, (2) Researcher background, (3) Game selection, (4) Boundaries, (5) Analysis approach, (6) Coding techniques & data extraction and (7) Reporting & transparency. Due to its comprehensive setup and its reflexive nature, DiGAP may be used as a (didactic) checklist to make insights from the field of game studies regarding game analyses accessible to a broader range of research fields (e.g., communication and human-computer interaction). This, in turn, makes it equally valuable for (student) researchers unfamiliar with the method of game analysis as well as more experienced game scholars.
The article is accessible here.
2021
Contextualizing Dark Patterns with the Ludeme Theory: A New Path for Digital Game Literacy?
Paper published in Game Studies (Dupont B; Malliet S) April 2021
So-called dark patterns are widely discussed in game design. This phenomenon raises concerns for gaming education because numerous dark patterns trick players into real money transactions or gambling. A major obstacle to the practical assessment of the severity of a ‘dark’ pattern is the very definition of ‘game patterns’, basing solely on action-oriented structures. In order to take into account not only abstract expressions of the game system, but also the experience of the player, as well as the diverse contexts in which games are played, this article proposes to use the semiotic model of the ‘ludeme’. A ludeme is a minimal element in game design consisting of a grapheme, an acousteme, and a motifeme. We begin by explaining and situating the conceptual framework of the ludeme theory, with a specific interest in its application to repetitions of the same game element over time and through different digital games. Then, the theoretical framework is applied to SimCity BuildIt and particularly to the ‘dark patterns’ in it. In the last part, paths for further developments of the model of ludemic analysis are discussed, with regard to its
relevance for media education and digital game literacy.
The article is accessible here.
Books and Book Chapters
2025
Online Gaming and Gambling: Gaming and Simulated Gambling among Adolescents in Flanders
Book Chapter published in Empowering the Digital Citizen (De Cock R; Grosemans E; Dupont B; Denoo M; Bradt L; Soenens B; Smits T; Zaman B)
In this chapter, results from the interdisciplinary Gam(e)(a)ble research project are shared, based on a survey in 1700 Flemish adolescents. In this project, we explored the blurring lines between video gaming and gambling. Findings revealed that video gaming is popular in adolescents, as 81% plays games. We also discovered that adolescents often come into contact with gambling-like elements in and around video games, such as loot boxes, prize wheels, and gambling streams. 56% of these adolescents had also taken part in gambling. Adolescents who had interacted with gambling-like elements, also had a more positive attitude towards gambling, had a higher intention to take part in gambling, and had taken part in gambling more frequently; compared to adolescents who had not interacted with these elements. Lastly, 46% of participants had learned about video games in school, while only 25% had learned about gambling in school.
The article is accessible here.
The protection of children by video-sharing platforms under the Audiovisual Media Services Directive: codifying platforms’ responsibility to respect children's rights
Book Chapter in Governance of Digital Single Market Actors (Lievens E; Verdoodt V). 2025
In today's digital era, children are often hailed as the “YouTube Generation” due to their ample consumption of captivating videos on video-sharing platforms (VSPs). Yet, amidst the excitement of discovering new content, such platforms can also expose young viewers to illegal, harmful, and unsuitable material. Recognising the evolving audiovisual landscape, in 2018 the EU took action by expanding the scope of the Audiovisual Media Services Directive (AVMSD) to explicitly encompass VSPs. While VSPs have long held responsibilities as private actors to respect children's rights and ensure their platforms are safe, the EU has moved beyond mere reliance on self-regulation. Instead, it has forged a new path, establishing a legal framework with obligations for VSPs, for which they can be held to account. This chapter delves into the history, scope, and provisions of the AVMSD, mapping the child-related obligations that VSPs must comply with, through the intersecting perspectives of children's rights and media law.
The Chapter is accessible here.
2024
Gam(e)(a)ble: multi-method research on the blurring lines between gaming and gambling among adolescents and the role of persuasive communication
Grosemans E; De Cock R (Supervisor); Zaman, B (Co_supervisor); Smits, T (Co_supervisor). 2024
The lines between gaming and gambling are becoming increasingly blurred in (online) games that are popular among teenagers which rises the societal concern that minors are being progressively exposed to gambling. Games that include non-monetary forms of gambling (simulated gambling) such as free casino games as well as in-app purchases of so-called loot boxes or packages operate in a grey zone due to the lack of an obligatory strict classification system. This makes it hard for parents and teenagers to see potential risks. The convergence of gambling and gaming is a recent phenomenon, triggering a significant expansion of new forms of online gambling activities that are more covertly and unrestrictedly than traditional land-based, offline gambling and therefore potentially more problematic. Studies on simulated gambling have only recently begun to be published and no studies have been following young simulated gamblers during their developmental stage. Early exposure to gambling elements in games may make this young age cohort more likely to gamble later in life and to develop problematic gam(bl)ing behaviour. Therefore, this project is built around 4 major societal concerns and research needs that will result in valorisation tools. The current doctoral project will focus on media research to unravel the relation between exposure to persuasive media content on gambling (advertising, sponsoring, online social influencers) and teenagers' attitudes towards gam(bl)ing and actual behaviour.
The Dissertation is accessible here.
Ready to play?' : a children's rights analysis of gambling-like elements in videogames
Declerck P. 2024
This book approaches ‘gambling-like elements’ such as lootboxes and social casino games from a children’s rights perspective, focusing on the applicable existing legal framework and providing recommendations for future regulation. Analysed legal domains include gambling regulation, consumer protection and data protection regulation, as well as videogame industry self-regulation. An interdisciplinary approach serves as the foundation of the text; insights from non-legal disciplines such as psychology and media studies are integrated into the legal analysis.
The book is aimed at readers with different levels of prior knowledge and experience regarding the topic, by providing both step-by-step explanations of videogame-related concepts and in-depth legal discussions within the various legal domains at different levels. It examines the recent evolution where children are increasingly engaging with a changing videogame environment in which the lines between videogames and gambling are blurred.
By adopting a children’s rights perspective, the book aims to add a fresh perspective to the legal debate related to the interacting worlds of videogames and gambling. As the book was written based on the doctoral research of the author, one especially relevant aspect is the inclusion of recommendations and wider suggestions directed at a variety of stakeholders in the field, ranging from policymakers at different levels, to industry representatives, legal scholars, parents and carers.
The book is accessible here.
[FR] Les jeux vidéo pour enfants Bien les comprendre pour mieux les choisir
Bonenfant M; Delorme S; Dumont A; Duchaineau C. 2024
Les jeux vidéo pour enfants polarisent le débat public depuis plusieurs années. Si vous êtes parents, vous avez assurément eu de nombreuses discussions à ce propos, que ce soit avec vos enfants ou votre entourage.
Dans un contexte où les spécialistes nous parlent des dangers qui y sont associés, mais aussi des bienfaits, comment s’y retrouver ? Est-il possible de répondre adéquatement aux besoins et désirs de ses enfants en matière de jeux vidéo tout en les supervisant ?
L’ouvrage que vous tenez entre vos mains propose de brosser un portrait du paysage vidéoludique pour enfants. Il offre des conseils pratiques, des informations descriptives, des synthèses scientifiques et plusieurs recommandations.
Après votre lecture, vous serez en mesure de choisir de bons jeux vidéo et d’encadrer efficacement leur utilisation afin de bénéficier de tous leurs apports positifs pour le développement de vos enfants.
The book is accessible here.
Illustrations with elements from thiings
